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Teaching of the Quran
1.Introduction
2. Doctrine of God
3. Doctrine of Revelation
4. Doctrine of Judgment
5.Doctrine of Salvation
6.Law of the Life
7.Attitude to other Faiths

 
 
 

II. The Doctrine of Revelation.


malaik
1. The Angels (MalåŸik).
The tradition of islam Islåm which places the doctrine of the Angels immediately after that of God is in accordance with the quran QurŸån, which claims Gabriel, the mightiest of archangels, as the special envoy from the court of heaven to bring this rescript. In this capacity he is called "the holy spirit" as the revealer of allah Allåh's message. The angels bear up the throne of allah Allåh and worship Him continually. They also prostrated themselves before Adam at allah Allåh's command with the exception of iblis Iblæs, who for that act of disobedience was cast down from Paradise. They are messengers of allah Allåh to guard and help believers, specially in fighting for the faith, the recorders of the deeds of men, who receive their souls at death and will intercede for believers at the Judgment. They are guardians also of Hell, and will die and be raised again.
The devil is called in the quran QurŸån indifferently by the Hebrew derivative shaitan Shaiþån (shatan Shåtån) or the Greek iblis Iblæs (diabolos). The name shaitan Shaiþån is generally used with the epithet rajim rajæm = stoned or accursed, sometimes marid maræd or rebellious. He is one of the jinn, but he also appears as an angel cast down from Paradise for his refusal to worship Adam. In revenge he tempts him and causes him also to fall, and beguiles his descendants except the faithful, who drive him away with stones; and he is the accuser and the enemy of man. shaitan Shaiþån is the leader of a host of shayatin shayåþæn or devils, who steal a hearing of celestial secrets, but are driven away by a shower of shooting stars. They oppose the prophets and teach men sorcery, but were servants to Solomon, who by his magic made them build and dive for him.
The quranic teaching as to the devils trenches on that of the Jinns or demons; in fact the two classes merge into one another, and are not clearly distinguished from the Angels. In 2 32 iblis Iblæs appears as one of the angels who refuses to worship Adam. In 18 48, an earlier passage, we read that iblis Iblæs was one of the jinns. Generally speaking these latter are regarded as a class of beings midway between men and angels (or men and devils). They are created of subtle fire, alongside of men who are created of clay, and equally with men are bound to worship allah Allåh, and summoned to believe in His Apostle, to whose preaching they listened on his return from taif ÞåŸif. There are among them both believers and infidels, and they will be judged at the last day, the evil being consigned to hell. These tried to overhear celestial secrets but were foiled, and they endeavour to lead men astray, more especially the infidels who worship them as gods. Jinns, as well as devils, were subject to the great magician-prophet Solomon.
2. The Scriptures.
Here we come to the core of the quranic conception of' Revelation. We must, therefore, first consider exactly what is meant by "Scripture" in the quran QurŸån, so far as exactitude is possible in a book which represents stages of thought in a mind, powerful indeed, yet neither philosophical nor logical.
The quranic conception of Scripture. -The leading word for Scripture is kitab kitåb, by which is meant, not primarily book or volume, but writing. It is applied most frequently by far to the quran QurŸån itself, but it is also used of other Scriptures. kitab Kitåb corresponds to quran QurŸån as written record to utterance, whether recitation or reading. Other words are used to denote the form of the writing. Zubur means written tables: in the form zabur Zabõr it is applied to the Psalms. suhuf Ãuøuf (singular sahifah ãaøæfah) means rolls. ummul UmmuŸl kitab kitåb, i.e. Mother of the Book, is the Archetypal Book kept with allah Allåh, from which each successive revelation is taken and sent down. lauh Lauø, i.e. Tablet is used (in the plural) of the Tables of the Law given to Moses, and of the Preserved Tablet on which the original of the quran QurŸån is written.
Revelation and Inspiration. -The Scripture itself is the revelation, i.e. the unveiling of divine mysteries or teachings. It is literally kalamullah KalåmuŸllåh, the Word of God. This is asserted most elaborately in respect of the quran QurŸån itself, but the same is taught of other Scriptures. The most characteristic synonym for Scripture is tanzil tanzæl = a missive or rescript sent down from allah Allåh to His Apostle. For mankind it is an admonition (tadhkirah) to guide them. Inspiration as the divine afflatus by which the message is conveyed to the messenger takes a secondary place. The nearest term for it is wahi waøæ, but this often covers the objective message as well as the subjective method of its imparting. wahi Waøæ is the speech of allah Allåh to man; it is the source of the quranic oracles, and it was conferred on Noah and other prophets. A conception closely connected with revelation is that of "guidance" (huda hudå). It is from allah Allåh only, but it may lead either to good or evil, for He leads astray whom He will. The guidance was accepted by muhammad Muøammad, as it is by other believers, but rejected by infidels. It was given by the former prophets and in the Law and the Evangel, and last by muhammad Muøammad in the quran QurŸån, and is to be imparted to others.
Previous Scriptures. -The continuity of revelation on which the quran QurŸån insists is based upon the succession of Scriptures. Between the prophetic revelations there have been long intervals, but Scriptures there have always been since Adam "was taught words by allah Allåh" (2 35). When muhammad Muøammad summons to the faith he is to say: "In whatsoever Scriptures God hath sent down do I believe" (42 14). Rolls were given to Abraham as well as to Moses telling of the life to come. Aaron, as well as Moses, received "a lucid Scripture." But for all practical purposes it is the Old and New Testaments which are referred to as Law (taurat Tauråt = Torah) and Evangel (injil Injæl). Scripture, Wisdom and Prophecy were granted to Israel, possibly a vague echo of the Law, Prophets and Wisdom in the Old Testament. The Evangel was given to Jesus by allah Allåh. Both are confirmed by the quran QurŸån, and describe the "people's prophet" (muhammad Muøammad) who is to come. The Evangel predicts his coming as ahmad Aømad, derived from the same root as muhammad Muøammad, both meaning the Praiseworthy. This is arrived at by garbling the promise of the Paraclete in John 16 7. The Greek title paracletos is changed into periclytos, i.e. celebrated, and so made synonymous with ahmad Aømad. The Law was revealed after Abraham with commands of allah Allåh which modified previous commands as to foods. The prophets judged Israel according to it, and the Jewish teachers were its keepers and witnesses. It was taught by allah Allåh to Jesus and confirmed by him, and it is attested and modified by muhammad Muøammad. Both Law and Evangel describe the prostrations of islam Islåm and promise Paradise to fighters in the way of God. Their followers should be obedient to the quran QurŸån, which is the confirmation and safeguard of the previous Scriptures and proves its inspiration by agreement with them. The only verbal quotation of the Bible in the quran QurŸån is in 21 105: "And now, since the Law was given, have we written in the Psalms (zabur Zabõr) that 'My servants, the righteous, shall inherit the earth'"; see Psalm 37 29. The stories of prophets are greatly distorted. It remains one of the outstanding anomalies of history that the religious genius of Arabia, who staked the truth of his message on the witness of previous Scriptures, should have utterly neglected to verify their contents and should have successfully inspired his followers through the ages to a like neglect.
Nevertheless Jews and Christians are designated and appealed to in the later surahs Sõrahs as "people of the Scriptures" (ahlul ahluŸl kitab kitåb). They have no ground to stand on unless they accept the latest Scripture as well as the Law and Evangel, and the prophet rejoices over some who have done so, but the unconvinced he denounces with the utmost severity, even exposing them to armed attack or tributary subjection.
The quran QurŸån as the Final Revelation. -The bare name quran QurŸån occurs in the volume eleven times; with the article "the quran QurŸån" thirty-six times; with the pronoun "this quran QurŸån" fifteen times. Generally it applies to one of the oracles or one of the surahs Sõrahs, but sometimes to the whole collection, as when it is said in 5 101: "If ye shall ask of such things when the (whole) quran QurŸån shall have been sent down, they shall be shown to you." It is revealed piecemeal to muhammad Muøammad, telling him what he did not know. Its verses are stablished in wisdom and are set forth with clearness. It is a revelation (wahi waøi), a missive (tanzil tanzæl), an admonition (dhikra dhikrå), the Scripture (kitab kitåb) par excellence, the Word of allah Allåh (kalamullah kalåmuŸllåh) in the strictest sense, which descended on the Night of Power, a transcript from the preserved Book. It is the Cord of allah Allåh which binds men to Him as long as He pleases; the Discerner (furqan Furqån); discriminating, yet lucid and direct, for it is revealed in plain Arabic through the prophet who is a man of the people. It is a glorious scripture containing good news; it agrees with itself and teaches by repetition, through similitudes of every kind and verses which are both figurative and explicit. It is the final revelation in which there can be no change, absolutely free from error, and comprising all secrets both of heaven and earth. Yet provision is made for changing circumstances. muhammad Muøammad was accused of forgery because he substituted one verse for another. His reply is: "What he pleaseth will allah Allåh abrogate or confirm, for with him is the Archetypal Book" (13 39); and if he cancels a verse or makes the prophet forget one it is only to grant him one equally good or a better (2 100). muhammad Muøammad is to listen carefully to what he hears from Gabriel and not to be hasty in the recital of this Arabic quran QurŸån while the revelation of it is incomplete. It must be recited with care and in measured tones, and listened to in silence.
This revelation is its own proof; unbelievers cannot produce its like. Only allah Allåh knows its meaning, but believers accept it as all from Him. In others it increases unbelief and rebellion, but whoso rejects it will be lost.
3. The Prophets.
As in the case of the Divine Scriptures, which form a succession from the beginning of the race till the series is completed by the quran QurŸån, so with the messengers of allah Allåh to whom they were vouchsafed. The quran QurŸån might have adopted the words of Zachariah the father of the Baptist, of whom it tells us a good deal more than the New Testament does: "He spake by the mouth of his holy prophets which have been since the world began." The first is Adam, the last is muhammad Muøammad the "Seal of the Prophets." To describe the recipients of revelation the quran QurŸån uses both the biblical terms, rasul Rasõl = Apostle or Messenger, and nabi Nabæ = Prophet or Utterer. * It is difficult to demonstrate any clear line of difference in the usage of the two terms except that rasul Rasõl is the term used in the verse 48 29; "muhammad Muøammad is the Apostle of allah Allåh," which is embodied in the latter half of the Kalimah or watch-word of islam Islåm. The use of rasul Rasõl is preponderant in the later passages which assert the authority of muhammad Muøammad side by side with allah Allåh. The Apostles of our Lord are designated by another name, hawari Øawåræ, an Ethiopic translation of apostolos, which may have reached muhammad Muøammad from Abyssinia. They are helpers and followers of Jesus who himself is the rasul Rasõl of that age, and are furnished by him with a table from heaven which gives its name to the latest chapter of the quran QurŸån (surah Sõrah maida MåŸida, 5), a confused echo either of the Eucharist or of the feeding of the 5000, or an amalgam of both. They are sent to preach to a certain unnamed city (cp. Lk. 10 1). Like other followers of the former prophets they profess themselves Muslims.
Taking rasul Rasõl (or Mursal) and nabi Nabæ as synonymous, the following twenty-eight prophets are mentioned in the quran QurŸån:-
Of the Old Testament: adam Ådam = Adam; idris Idræs = Enoch; salih Ãåliø (the Righteous) = Methusaleh (?); nuh Nõø = Noah; hud Hõd (the Jew) = Eber (?); ibrahim Ibråhæm = Abraham; lut Lõþ = Lot; ismail IsmåŸæl = Ishmael; ishaq Isøåq = Isaac; yaqub Yaÿqõb = Jacob; yusuf Yõsuf = Joseph; musa Mõså = Moses; harun Hårõn = Aaron; shuaib Shuÿaib = Jethro; aiyub Aiyõb = Job ; daud DåŸõd = David; sulaiman Sulaimån = Solomon; ilyas Ilyås = Elijah; Al yasa Yasaÿ = Elisha; dhul DhõŸl Kifl = lord of a portion, possibly Obadiah (I Kings 18 4, who fed the prophets of Jehovah in hiding); yunus Yõnus = Jonah; uzair ÿUzair = Ezra.
Of the New Testament: zakariya Zakariyå = Zachariah, father of John; yahya Yaøyå * = John the Baptist; isa ÿÆså = Jesus.
Outside Scripture: luqman Luqmån = Aesop (or possibly Balaam); dhul DhõŸl Qarnain (Lord of the two horns) = Alexander the Great.
The histories of these prophets are said to have been revealed by allah Allåh to confirm the heart of muhammad Muøammad (11 121) and they occur mainly during the latter period of Meccan prophecy which was the most difficult period of his struggle against the powerful pagans of Mecca. This would predispose him to accept without excessive scrutiny the ill-digested mass of talmudic legend, historical fact, apocryphal gospel and Arabian folk-lore which these stories present. The presentation of them as revealed truth, in face of the obvious medley of discordant elements and glaring blunders, is a problem of character which it is not easy to solve when we consider that this same man was fighting a heroic battle in defence of the central truth of monotheism. In some way he convinced himself that the end justified the means, and certainly the means were ably adapted to the end as he saw it. The Arab was no historical critic and had no overstrained reverence for historical fact as such. Frequent repetition of familiar phrases in a style that he admired did not pall upon him but impressed him. And there was one line of very relevant thought which ran through all the stories. "Through all the ages the messengers of allah Allåh have come to peoples of many lands, not excepting your own, preaching the Unity, Judgment to come and repentance, and they have been spurned by rebellious nations who have suffered judgments of flood, fire and earthquake and passed on to hell, while the faithful few were spared and rewarded. I preach to you the same message and offer you the same choice." The fact that the believers of centuries or millenniums back proclaim themselves Muslim, in the same quranic terms as are taught to the Meccans, only made the preaching more incisive.
It would be outside the scope of the present work to follow out the stories singly, but the principal features of each will be found in the reference index under the names above mentioned. It must, however, be remarked that even the identifications which are given without a query mark are in some cases open to question. The stories may be divided into four groups.
First come three which have to do with Arabian peoples. To the people of ad ÿÅd the prophet hud Hõd (= Jew) is sent and destroys their pillared city of Iram with a whirlwind. The people of thamud Thamõd, who had built themselves dwellings in the rocks of the vale of hijra hijr Øijr, are visited by salih Såliø (= the righteous); they kill the female camel granted them by allah Allåh as a sign and are destroyed by a storm. The dwellers in Madyan or Midian are exhorted by shuaib Shuÿaib (Jethro) to repent of unfair dealings and are struck dead in their houses. These tales are loosely, if at all, connected with the Old Testament.
Next comes the group of Old Testament prophets proper. In some of these stories we notice signs of development, as in the case of Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac. At first Abraham rejects creature worship as in the beautiful legend of the heavenly bodies (6 74-82); opposes idolatry and is persecuted; is granted a son and is ready to sacrifice him as in the biblical story, and this child is to all appearance Isaac, the righteous son wonderfully born to him. At Medina the centralisation of worship at Mecca, which is to be conquered for islam Islåm, comes to the front, and we find Ishmael eclipsing Isaac. It is Ishmael and his father who found the sanctuary at Mecca and settle their descendants near it. It is strange that the name of Hagar should not be mentioned in the quran QurŸån. Abraham is the prophet of all others whom muhammad Muøammad regards as his pattern. He is the friend of allah Allåh, sound in faith (hanif øanæf), neither Jew nor Christian but Muslim, and his religion is to be followed. Lot is brought into great prominence with frequent repetitions. Most of the stories are given in fragments, with repetition of details; the story of Joseph in S. 12 is more consecutive; and it is characterized as the most beautiful of tales specially revealed to muhammad Muøammad. The legendary element is specially developed in the case of David and Solomon. The story of Jonah is closest to Scripture. Of Moses as a leader the quran QurŸån makes less than of Abraham, though it gives more details of him, chiefly in connection with Pharaoh. The assertion in one of the latest surahs Sõrahs that the Jews maintained Ezra to be the Son of God has no historical foundation. It may have been that, knowing Ezra to be highly venerated by the Jews, muhammad Muøammad hoped to fasten upon them in the minds of an uncritical audience what he regarded as a specially damning charge against the Christians.
The third group is that of the New Testament prophets, Zachariah, John, and Jesus. Here we are in the region of apocryphal tradition confusedly reproduced. Zachariah is foster father to Mary, and John is granted him in answer to prayer. John is to confirm "the Word from allah Allåh," a title of Jesus; he is coupled with his father and Jesus and Elijah as among the righteous ones. Of Jesus details are given in the subject index; only outstanding features are mentioned here. He is called both by His personal name, but in the form isa ÿIså, and by his title of office, masih Masæø, the Arabic form of mashiakh Mashæakh. No difference of meaning is discernible in the quranic use of the two names. There is no direct evidence to show why muhammad Muøammad changed the original name yeshu Yeshõÿ, with the Hebrew radicals ye, shin shæn, ayin ÿayin, by reversing them to the ayin ÿayin, sin sæn, ya yå of the Arabic isa ÿÆsa. Arabic-speaking Christians have always kept the true name. The most probable conjecture seems to be that the change was the result of muhammad Muøammad's love for assonance which led him also to change Saul and Goliath into talut Þålõt and jalut Jålõt, Gog and Magog into yajuj Yåjõj and majuj Måjõj, Aaron and Korah into harun Hårõn and qarun Qårõn. Similarly he changed the leaders of the New and Old Testament into isa ÿIså and musa Mõså, a pair very familiar in Muslim phraseology. Incidentally the meaning of the name yeshu Yeshõÿ has been obliterated, and Moslem divines give meaningless explanations of the quranic form. Jesus is further designated as the Servant of allah Allåh, His Apostle, His Prophet, His Word, and a Spirit from Him, and as the Word of Truth. His mother is Mary, daughter of imran ÿImrån (Amram), and sister of Aaron. The Spirit (Gabriel) is sent from allah Allåh to bestow on Mary a holy son. The infant speaks in the cradle to vindicate His mother, and claims to be a prophet endowed with a Scripture, who will die and be raised again. He performs miracles, calls apostles and brings down for them a furnished table from heaven. He was no ascetic, but a true successor of the former prophets, and His Evangel confirms the Law, but relaxes some of its prohibitions. He came to bring the one religion, was strengthened by the Holy Spirit, and raised to the loftiest grade. As to His death and resurrection there is some confusion, which has caused much perplexity to interpreters. All people are to believe on Him before His death, and He will witness for or against them at the judgment. The Jews did not slay Him, but His likeness; He was taken up to allah Allåh. allah Allåh delivered Him from the Jews, caused Him to die, and took Him up to Himself till the day of resurrection. The general belief is that, having been taken up alive to allah Allåh, Jesus will come again before the last day to preach islam Islåm and then be killed and raised again. In the quran QurŸån Jesus denies before allah Allåh that He has bidden men to take Him and His mother as gods besides allah Allåh. He is not a Son of allah Allåh, but a creature, "as Adam in His sight," i.e. created of dust without a human father. It is infidelity to say that Christ, the son of Mary, is allah Allåh.
Speaking of the messengers of allah Allåh generally, whether as Apostles or Prophets, the quran QurŸån teaches that they are taken from angels as well as from among men, the idea being apparently that angels, such as Gabriel, who carry revelations to men are partakers in the work of the Prophets. Before the world allah Allåh made a covenant with the Prophets, and then foretold the coming of ahmad Aømad (= muhammad Muøammad); and they will have to give account of their fulfilment of its requirements. Many came before muhammad Muøammad, seeking to turn men from idolatry. They preached in the speech of the people to whom they were sent, and worked miracles by the permission of allah Allåh. Each of them was molested by the wicked one, and none was entirely unaffected by him. The sins of Adam, Moses, David, Jonah and others are recorded. They were forgiven when they repented and prayed for pardon and strength, and the peace of allah Allåh rests on them. All the Prophets are accepted equally by believers, but there are differences of grade among them, Jesus being especially named (2 254). Some were especially endowed with constancy (ululazm õlõŸlÿazm). In 6 83-6 eighteen favoured ones are mentioned, of whom "each one have We preferred above the worlds."
The last group is that of persons introduced from the non-biblical world. Alexander the Great appears as dhul DhõŸl Qarnain in the character of a leader who by divine inspiration is enabled to build a rampart against the incursions of Gog and Magog. luqman Luqmån is granted wisdom by allah Allåh and preaches humility and islam Islåm to his son. Whether either or both of these are to be accounted Prophets is not quite certain. At any rate their speech and action are cast in the same mould as those of the Prophets. With these may be classed the story of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus * or "Companions of the Cave," told in the Chapter of the Cave (18), which contains also the tales of Alexander and of Moses and his servant. This legend of the Cave is the only allusion in the quran QurŸån to Christian Church History. It is reproduced in the same confused and inaccurate style as the rest.
The climax and perfection of the prophetic office is manifested in muhammad Muøammad. He is a mortal man like his hearers, albeit an Apostle of allah Allåh and a Prophet like Moses. He is taken from among the Arab nation, a man of the people (ummi ummæ) who addresses them in their common speech. In youth he was an orphan and a pagan, but allah Allåh guided him, and granted him a revelation and bade him proclaim it publicly. He encouraged him in depression and carried him in a vision of the night from the Nearer to the Remoter Mosque and back. In danger from the plots of idolaters he was bidden to withdraw from them and preserved during the dangers of the Flight, and in the day of battle the peace of the divine Presence descended on him. On one occasion he is reproved for slighting a blind beggar and courting the wealthy. On another he is nearly led astray by unbelievers, and he is bidden once and again to seek pardon for his faults. Accordingly he prays for forgiveness to himself and to other believers whose iniquities press heavily on him. His wives are mothers of the faithful; none may marry them after him. They are warned against disobedience and threatened with dismissal. Special privileges are granted to him as to choice and number of wives, and no blame attaches to the prophet for exceeding limits where allah Allåh has given him permission. muhammad Muøammad is the first of Muslims, a noble pattern to believers; he is sound in faith (hanif øanæf); a man of sanity and patience who seeks his wage only from allah Allåh. He is not a guardian (wakil wakæl) of his people, but a warner and a herald; his only duty is clear delivery of his message, whether it convinces or hardens gainsayers, and he will be rewarded accordingly. He is the Seal of the Prophets, foretold in the Law and the Evangel. Belief in, and obedience to, him are necessary to salvation, for he has escaped error and received complete enlightenment, though he disclaims knowledge of the secrets of the Judgment. No private opinion can stand against the decree of allah Allåh and the Apostle. He and his message are for all the world. He was not granted the power of miracles, because they had been ineffectual in producing faith in the case of other Apostles, and the Book is a sufficient sign. He is accused of being a sorcerer, soothsayer, poet, madman, forger, impostor, and of defrauding his followers. Woe to his accusers! curses on those who affront or injure him; vengeance will overtake his opponents; hell-fire is for those who disobey allah Allåh and His Apostle; muhammad Muøammad will not be ashamed at the Day.
There is a distinct development in the assertion of his authority in the Medina surahs Sõrahs, whether towards believers who are bidden to salute the Prophet and beware how they enter his presence, while he is told not to yield to them-or towards unbelievers who at length are to be reduced to submission by warfare. But in the quran QurŸån muhammad Muøammad remains a fallible and sinful creature. The conception of him as the ideal man and prototype of humanity belongs to a later development.