II. The Doctrine of
Revelation.
malaik
1. The Angels (MalåŸik).
The tradition of islam Islåm which places the doctrine
of the Angels immediately after that of God is in
accordance with the quran QurŸån, which claims Gabriel,
the mightiest of archangels, as the special envoy from
the court of heaven to bring this rescript. In this
capacity he is called "the holy spirit" as the revealer
of allah Allåh's message. The angels bear up the throne
of allah Allåh and worship Him continually. They also
prostrated themselves before Adam at allah Allåh's
command with the exception of iblis Iblæs, who for that
act of disobedience was cast down from Paradise. They
are messengers of allah Allåh to guard and help
believers, specially in fighting for the faith, the
recorders of the deeds of men, who receive their souls
at death and will intercede for believers at the
Judgment. They are guardians also of Hell, and will die
and be raised again.
The devil is called in the quran QurŸån indifferently by
the Hebrew derivative shaitan Shaiþån (shatan Shåtån) or
the Greek iblis Iblæs (diabolos). The name shaitan
Shaiþån is generally used with the epithet rajim rajæm =
stoned or accursed, sometimes marid maræd or rebellious.
He is one of the jinn, but he also appears as an angel
cast down from Paradise for his refusal to worship Adam.
In revenge he tempts him and causes him also to fall,
and beguiles his descendants except the faithful, who
drive him away with stones; and he is the accuser and
the enemy of man. shaitan Shaiþån is the leader of a
host of shayatin shayåþæn or devils, who steal a hearing
of celestial secrets, but are driven away by a shower of
shooting stars. They oppose the prophets and teach men
sorcery, but were servants to Solomon, who by his magic
made them build and dive for him.
The quranic teaching as to the devils trenches on that
of the Jinns or demons; in fact the two classes merge
into one another, and are not clearly distinguished from
the Angels. In 2 32 iblis Iblæs appears as one of the
angels who refuses to worship Adam. In 18 48, an earlier
passage, we read that iblis Iblæs was one of the jinns.
Generally speaking these latter are regarded as a class
of beings midway between men and angels (or men and
devils). They are created of subtle fire, alongside of
men who are created of clay, and equally with men are
bound to worship allah Allåh, and summoned to believe in
His Apostle, to whose preaching they listened on his
return from taif ÞåŸif. There are among them both
believers and infidels, and they will be judged at the
last day, the evil being consigned to hell. These tried
to overhear celestial secrets but were foiled, and they
endeavour to lead men astray, more especially the
infidels who worship them as gods. Jinns, as well as
devils, were subject to the great magician-prophet
Solomon.
2. The Scriptures.
Here we come to the core of the quranic conception of'
Revelation. We must, therefore, first consider exactly
what is meant by "Scripture" in the quran QurŸån, so far
as exactitude is possible in a book which represents
stages of thought in a mind, powerful indeed, yet
neither philosophical nor logical.
The quranic conception of Scripture. -The leading word
for Scripture is kitab kitåb, by which is meant, not
primarily book or volume, but writing. It is applied
most frequently by far to the quran QurŸån itself, but
it is also used of other Scriptures. kitab Kitåb
corresponds to quran QurŸån as written record to
utterance, whether recitation or reading. Other words
are used to denote the form of the writing. Zubur means
written tables: in the form zabur Zabõr it is applied to
the Psalms. suhuf Ãuøuf (singular sahifah ãaøæfah) means
rolls. ummul UmmuŸl kitab kitåb, i.e. Mother of the
Book, is the Archetypal Book kept with allah Allåh, from
which each successive revelation is taken and sent down.
lauh Lauø, i.e. Tablet is used (in the plural) of the
Tables of the Law given to Moses, and of the Preserved
Tablet on which the original of the quran QurŸån is
written.
Revelation and Inspiration. -The Scripture itself is the
revelation, i.e. the unveiling of divine mysteries or
teachings. It is literally kalamullah KalåmuŸllåh, the
Word of God. This is asserted most elaborately in
respect of the quran QurŸån itself, but the same is
taught of other Scriptures. The most characteristic
synonym for Scripture is tanzil tanzæl = a missive or
rescript sent down from allah Allåh to His Apostle. For
mankind it is an admonition (tadhkirah) to guide them.
Inspiration as the divine afflatus by which the message
is conveyed to the messenger takes a secondary place.
The nearest term for it is wahi waøæ, but this often
covers the objective message as well as the subjective
method of its imparting. wahi Waøæ is the speech of
allah Allåh to man; it is the source of the quranic
oracles, and it was conferred on Noah and other
prophets. A conception closely connected with revelation
is that of "guidance" (huda hudå). It is from allah
Allåh only, but it may lead either to good or evil, for
He leads astray whom He will. The guidance was accepted
by muhammad Muøammad, as it is by other believers, but
rejected by infidels. It was given by the former
prophets and in the Law and the Evangel, and last by
muhammad Muøammad in the quran QurŸån, and is to be
imparted to others.
Previous Scriptures. -The continuity of revelation on
which the quran QurŸån insists is based upon the
succession of Scriptures. Between the prophetic
revelations there have been long intervals, but
Scriptures there have always been since Adam "was taught
words by allah Allåh" (2 35). When muhammad Muøammad
summons to the faith he is to say: "In whatsoever
Scriptures God hath sent down do I believe" (42 14).
Rolls were given to Abraham as well as to Moses telling
of the life to come. Aaron, as well as Moses, received
"a lucid Scripture." But for all practical purposes it
is the Old and New Testaments which are referred to as
Law (taurat Tauråt = Torah) and Evangel (injil Injæl).
Scripture, Wisdom and Prophecy were granted to Israel,
possibly a vague echo of the Law, Prophets and Wisdom in
the Old Testament. The Evangel was given to Jesus by
allah Allåh. Both are confirmed by the quran QurŸån, and
describe the "people's prophet" (muhammad Muøammad) who
is to come. The Evangel predicts his coming as ahmad
Aømad, derived from the same root as muhammad Muøammad,
both meaning the Praiseworthy. This is arrived at by
garbling the promise of the Paraclete in John 16 7. The
Greek title paracletos is changed into periclytos, i.e.
celebrated, and so made synonymous with ahmad Aømad. The
Law was revealed after Abraham with commands of allah
Allåh which modified previous commands as to foods. The
prophets judged Israel according to it, and the Jewish
teachers were its keepers and witnesses. It was taught
by allah Allåh to Jesus and confirmed by him, and it is
attested and modified by muhammad Muøammad. Both Law and
Evangel describe the prostrations of islam Islåm and
promise Paradise to fighters in the way of God. Their
followers should be obedient to the quran QurŸån, which
is the confirmation and safeguard of the previous
Scriptures and proves its inspiration by agreement with
them. The only verbal quotation of the Bible in the
quran QurŸån is in 21 105: "And now, since the Law was
given, have we written in the Psalms (zabur Zabõr) that
'My servants, the righteous, shall inherit the earth'";
see Psalm 37 29. The stories of prophets are greatly
distorted. It remains one of the outstanding anomalies
of history that the religious genius of Arabia, who
staked the truth of his message on the witness of
previous Scriptures, should have utterly neglected to
verify their contents and should have successfully
inspired his followers through the ages to a like
neglect.
Nevertheless Jews and Christians are designated and
appealed to in the later surahs Sõrahs as "people of the
Scriptures" (ahlul ahluŸl kitab kitåb). They have no
ground to stand on unless they accept the latest
Scripture as well as the Law and Evangel, and the
prophet rejoices over some who have done so, but the
unconvinced he denounces with the utmost severity, even
exposing them to armed attack or tributary subjection.
The quran QurŸån as the Final Revelation. -The bare name
quran QurŸån occurs in the volume eleven times; with the
article "the quran QurŸån" thirty-six times; with the
pronoun "this quran QurŸån" fifteen times. Generally it
applies to one of the oracles or one of the surahs
Sõrahs, but sometimes to the whole collection, as when
it is said in 5 101: "If ye shall ask of such things
when the (whole) quran QurŸån shall have been sent down,
they shall be shown to you." It is revealed piecemeal to
muhammad Muøammad, telling him what he did not know. Its
verses are stablished in wisdom and are set forth with
clearness. It is a revelation (wahi waøi), a missive (tanzil
tanzæl), an admonition (dhikra dhikrå), the Scripture (kitab
kitåb) par excellence, the Word of allah Allåh (kalamullah
kalåmuŸllåh) in the strictest sense, which descended on
the Night of Power, a transcript from the preserved
Book. It is the Cord of allah Allåh which binds men to
Him as long as He pleases; the Discerner (furqan Furqån);
discriminating, yet lucid and direct, for it is revealed
in plain Arabic through the prophet who is a man of the
people. It is a glorious scripture containing good news;
it agrees with itself and teaches by repetition, through
similitudes of every kind and verses which are both
figurative and explicit. It is the final revelation in
which there can be no change, absolutely free from
error, and comprising all secrets both of heaven and
earth. Yet provision is made for changing circumstances.
muhammad Muøammad was accused of forgery because he
substituted one verse for another. His reply is: "What
he pleaseth will allah Allåh abrogate or confirm, for
with him is the Archetypal Book" (13 39); and if he
cancels a verse or makes the prophet forget one it is
only to grant him one equally good or a better (2 100).
muhammad Muøammad is to listen carefully to what he
hears from Gabriel and not to be hasty in the recital of
this Arabic quran QurŸån while the revelation of it is
incomplete. It must be recited with care and in measured
tones, and listened to in silence.
This revelation is its own proof; unbelievers cannot
produce its like. Only allah Allåh knows its meaning,
but believers accept it as all from Him. In others it
increases unbelief and rebellion, but whoso rejects it
will be lost.
3. The Prophets.
As in the case of the Divine Scriptures, which form a
succession from the beginning of the race till the
series is completed by the quran QurŸån, so with the
messengers of allah Allåh to whom they were vouchsafed.
The quran QurŸån might have adopted the words of
Zachariah the father of the Baptist, of whom it tells us
a good deal more than the New Testament does: "He spake
by the mouth of his holy prophets which have been since
the world began." The first is Adam, the last is
muhammad Muøammad the "Seal of the Prophets." To
describe the recipients of revelation the quran QurŸån
uses both the biblical terms, rasul Rasõl = Apostle or
Messenger, and nabi Nabæ = Prophet or Utterer. * It is
difficult to demonstrate any clear line of difference in
the usage of the two terms except that rasul Rasõl is
the term used in the verse 48 29; "muhammad Muøammad is
the Apostle of allah Allåh," which is embodied in the
latter half of the Kalimah or watch-word of islam Islåm.
The use of rasul Rasõl is preponderant in the later
passages which assert the authority of muhammad Muøammad
side by side with allah Allåh. The Apostles of our Lord
are designated by another name, hawari Øawåræ, an
Ethiopic translation of apostolos, which may have
reached muhammad Muøammad from Abyssinia. They are
helpers and followers of Jesus who himself is the rasul
Rasõl of that age, and are furnished by him with a table
from heaven which gives its name to the latest chapter
of the quran QurŸån (surah Sõrah maida MåŸida, 5), a
confused echo either of the Eucharist or of the feeding
of the 5000, or an amalgam of both. They are sent to
preach to a certain unnamed city (cp. Lk. 10 1). Like
other followers of the former prophets they profess
themselves Muslims.
Taking rasul Rasõl (or Mursal) and nabi Nabæ as
synonymous, the following twenty-eight prophets are
mentioned in the quran QurŸån:-
Of the Old Testament: adam Ådam = Adam; idris Idræs =
Enoch; salih Ãåliø (the Righteous) = Methusaleh (?); nuh
Nõø = Noah; hud Hõd (the Jew) = Eber (?); ibrahim
Ibråhæm = Abraham; lut Lõþ = Lot; ismail IsmåŸæl =
Ishmael; ishaq Isøåq = Isaac; yaqub Yaÿqõb = Jacob;
yusuf Yõsuf = Joseph; musa Mõså = Moses; harun Hårõn =
Aaron; shuaib Shuÿaib = Jethro; aiyub Aiyõb = Job ; daud
DåŸõd = David; sulaiman Sulaimån = Solomon; ilyas Ilyås
= Elijah; Al yasa Yasaÿ = Elisha; dhul DhõŸl Kifl = lord
of a portion, possibly Obadiah (I Kings 18 4, who fed
the prophets of Jehovah in hiding); yunus Yõnus = Jonah;
uzair ÿUzair = Ezra.
Of the New Testament: zakariya Zakariyå = Zachariah,
father of John; yahya Yaøyå * = John the Baptist; isa
ÿÆså = Jesus.
Outside Scripture: luqman Luqmån = Aesop (or possibly
Balaam); dhul DhõŸl Qarnain (Lord of the two horns) =
Alexander the Great.
The histories of these prophets are said to have been
revealed by allah Allåh to confirm the heart of muhammad
Muøammad (11 121) and they occur mainly during the
latter period of Meccan prophecy which was the most
difficult period of his struggle against the powerful
pagans of Mecca. This would predispose him to accept
without excessive scrutiny the ill-digested mass of
talmudic legend, historical fact, apocryphal gospel and
Arabian folk-lore which these stories present. The
presentation of them as revealed truth, in face of the
obvious medley of discordant elements and glaring
blunders, is a problem of character which it is not easy
to solve when we consider that this same man was
fighting a heroic battle in defence of the central truth
of monotheism. In some way he convinced himself that the
end justified the means, and certainly the means were
ably adapted to the end as he saw it. The Arab was no
historical critic and had no overstrained reverence for
historical fact as such. Frequent repetition of familiar
phrases in a style that he admired did not pall upon him
but impressed him. And there was one line of very
relevant thought which ran through all the stories.
"Through all the ages the messengers of allah Allåh have
come to peoples of many lands, not excepting your own,
preaching the Unity, Judgment to come and repentance,
and they have been spurned by rebellious nations who
have suffered judgments of flood, fire and earthquake
and passed on to hell, while the faithful few were
spared and rewarded. I preach to you the same message
and offer you the same choice." The fact that the
believers of centuries or millenniums back proclaim
themselves Muslim, in the same quranic terms as are
taught to the Meccans, only made the preaching more
incisive.
It would be outside the scope of the present work to
follow out the stories singly, but the principal
features of each will be found in the reference index
under the names above mentioned. It must, however, be
remarked that even the identifications which are given
without a query mark are in some cases open to question.
The stories may be divided into four groups.
First come three which have to do with Arabian peoples.
To the people of ad ÿÅd the prophet hud Hõd (= Jew) is
sent and destroys their pillared city of Iram with a
whirlwind. The people of thamud Thamõd, who had built
themselves dwellings in the rocks of the vale of hijra
hijr Øijr, are visited by salih Såliø (= the righteous);
they kill the female camel granted them by allah Allåh
as a sign and are destroyed by a storm. The dwellers in
Madyan or Midian are exhorted by shuaib Shuÿaib (Jethro)
to repent of unfair dealings and are struck dead in
their houses. These tales are loosely, if at all,
connected with the Old Testament.
Next comes the group of Old Testament prophets proper.
In some of these stories we notice signs of development,
as in the case of Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac. At
first Abraham rejects creature worship as in the
beautiful legend of the heavenly bodies (6 74-82);
opposes idolatry and is persecuted; is granted a son and
is ready to sacrifice him as in the biblical story, and
this child is to all appearance Isaac, the righteous son
wonderfully born to him. At Medina the centralisation of
worship at Mecca, which is to be conquered for islam
Islåm, comes to the front, and we find Ishmael eclipsing
Isaac. It is Ishmael and his father who found the
sanctuary at Mecca and settle their descendants near it.
It is strange that the name of Hagar should not be
mentioned in the quran QurŸån. Abraham is the prophet of
all others whom muhammad Muøammad regards as his
pattern. He is the friend of allah Allåh, sound in faith
(hanif øanæf), neither Jew nor Christian but Muslim, and
his religion is to be followed. Lot is brought into
great prominence with frequent repetitions. Most of the
stories are given in fragments, with repetition of
details; the story of Joseph in S. 12 is more
consecutive; and it is characterized as the most
beautiful of tales specially revealed to muhammad
Muøammad. The legendary element is specially developed
in the case of David and Solomon. The story of Jonah is
closest to Scripture. Of Moses as a leader the quran
QurŸån makes less than of Abraham, though it gives more
details of him, chiefly in connection with Pharaoh. The
assertion in one of the latest surahs Sõrahs that the
Jews maintained Ezra to be the Son of God has no
historical foundation. It may have been that, knowing
Ezra to be highly venerated by the Jews, muhammad
Muøammad hoped to fasten upon them in the minds of an
uncritical audience what he regarded as a specially
damning charge against the Christians.
The third group is that of the New Testament prophets,
Zachariah, John, and Jesus. Here we are in the region of
apocryphal tradition confusedly reproduced. Zachariah is
foster father to Mary, and John is granted him in answer
to prayer. John is to confirm "the Word from allah
Allåh," a title of Jesus; he is coupled with his father
and Jesus and Elijah as among the righteous ones. Of
Jesus details are given in the subject index; only
outstanding features are mentioned here. He is called
both by His personal name, but in the form isa ÿIså, and
by his title of office, masih Masæø, the Arabic form of
mashiakh Mashæakh. No difference of meaning is
discernible in the quranic use of the two names. There
is no direct evidence to show why muhammad Muøammad
changed the original name yeshu Yeshõÿ, with the Hebrew
radicals ye, shin shæn, ayin ÿayin, by reversing them to
the ayin ÿayin, sin sæn, ya yå of the Arabic isa ÿÆsa.
Arabic-speaking Christians have always kept the true
name. The most probable conjecture seems to be that the
change was the result of muhammad Muøammad's love for
assonance which led him also to change Saul and Goliath
into talut Þålõt and jalut Jålõt, Gog and Magog into
yajuj Yåjõj and majuj Måjõj, Aaron and Korah into harun
Hårõn and qarun Qårõn. Similarly he changed the leaders
of the New and Old Testament into isa ÿIså and musa
Mõså, a pair very familiar in Muslim phraseology.
Incidentally the meaning of the name yeshu Yeshõÿ has
been obliterated, and Moslem divines give meaningless
explanations of the quranic form. Jesus is further
designated as the Servant of allah Allåh, His Apostle,
His Prophet, His Word, and a Spirit from Him, and as the
Word of Truth. His mother is Mary, daughter of imran
ÿImrån (Amram), and sister of Aaron. The Spirit
(Gabriel) is sent from allah Allåh to bestow on Mary a
holy son. The infant speaks in the cradle to vindicate
His mother, and claims to be a prophet endowed with a
Scripture, who will die and be raised again. He performs
miracles, calls apostles and brings down for them a
furnished table from heaven. He was no ascetic, but a
true successor of the former prophets, and His Evangel
confirms the Law, but relaxes some of its prohibitions.
He came to bring the one religion, was strengthened by
the Holy Spirit, and raised to the loftiest grade. As to
His death and resurrection there is some confusion,
which has caused much perplexity to interpreters. All
people are to believe on Him before His death, and He
will witness for or against them at the judgment. The
Jews did not slay Him, but His likeness; He was taken up
to allah Allåh. allah Allåh delivered Him from the Jews,
caused Him to die, and took Him up to Himself till the
day of resurrection. The general belief is that, having
been taken up alive to allah Allåh, Jesus will come
again before the last day to preach islam Islåm and then
be killed and raised again. In the quran QurŸån Jesus
denies before allah Allåh that He has bidden men to take
Him and His mother as gods besides allah Allåh. He is
not a Son of allah Allåh, but a creature, "as Adam in
His sight," i.e. created of dust without a human father.
It is infidelity to say that Christ, the son of Mary, is
allah Allåh.
Speaking of the messengers of allah Allåh generally,
whether as Apostles or Prophets, the quran QurŸån
teaches that they are taken from angels as well as from
among men, the idea being apparently that angels, such
as Gabriel, who carry revelations to men are partakers
in the work of the Prophets. Before the world allah
Allåh made a covenant with the Prophets, and then
foretold the coming of ahmad Aømad (= muhammad
Muøammad); and they will have to give account of their
fulfilment of its requirements. Many came before
muhammad Muøammad, seeking to turn men from idolatry.
They preached in the speech of the people to whom they
were sent, and worked miracles by the permission of
allah Allåh. Each of them was molested by the wicked
one, and none was entirely unaffected by him. The sins
of Adam, Moses, David, Jonah and others are recorded.
They were forgiven when they repented and prayed for
pardon and strength, and the peace of allah Allåh rests
on them. All the Prophets are accepted equally by
believers, but there are differences of grade among
them, Jesus being especially named (2 254). Some were
especially endowed with constancy (ululazm õlõŸlÿazm).
In 6 83-6 eighteen favoured ones are mentioned, of whom
"each one have We preferred above the worlds."
The last group is that of persons introduced from the
non-biblical world. Alexander the Great appears as dhul
DhõŸl Qarnain in the character of a leader who by divine
inspiration is enabled to build a rampart against the
incursions of Gog and Magog. luqman Luqmån is granted
wisdom by allah Allåh and preaches humility and islam
Islåm to his son. Whether either or both of these are to
be accounted Prophets is not quite certain. At any rate
their speech and action are cast in the same mould as
those of the Prophets. With these may be classed the
story of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus * or "Companions
of the Cave," told in the Chapter of the Cave (18),
which contains also the tales of Alexander and of Moses
and his servant. This legend of the Cave is the only
allusion in the quran QurŸån to Christian Church
History. It is reproduced in the same confused and
inaccurate style as the rest.
The climax and perfection of the prophetic office is
manifested in muhammad Muøammad. He is a mortal man like
his hearers, albeit an Apostle of allah Allåh and a
Prophet like Moses. He is taken from among the Arab
nation, a man of the people (ummi ummæ) who addresses
them in their common speech. In youth he was an orphan
and a pagan, but allah Allåh guided him, and granted him
a revelation and bade him proclaim it publicly. He
encouraged him in depression and carried him in a vision
of the night from the Nearer to the Remoter Mosque and
back. In danger from the plots of idolaters he was
bidden to withdraw from them and preserved during the
dangers of the Flight, and in the day of battle the
peace of the divine Presence descended on him. On one
occasion he is reproved for slighting a blind beggar and
courting the wealthy. On another he is nearly led astray
by unbelievers, and he is bidden once and again to seek
pardon for his faults. Accordingly he prays for
forgiveness to himself and to other believers whose
iniquities press heavily on him. His wives are mothers
of the faithful; none may marry them after him. They are
warned against disobedience and threatened with
dismissal. Special privileges are granted to him as to
choice and number of wives, and no blame attaches to the
prophet for exceeding limits where allah Allåh has given
him permission. muhammad Muøammad is the first of
Muslims, a noble pattern to believers; he is sound in
faith (hanif øanæf); a man of sanity and patience who
seeks his wage only from allah Allåh. He is not a
guardian (wakil wakæl) of his people, but a warner and a
herald; his only duty is clear delivery of his message,
whether it convinces or hardens gainsayers, and he will
be rewarded accordingly. He is the Seal of the Prophets,
foretold in the Law and the Evangel. Belief in, and
obedience to, him are necessary to salvation, for he has
escaped error and received complete enlightenment,
though he disclaims knowledge of the secrets of the
Judgment. No private opinion can stand against the
decree of allah Allåh and the Apostle. He and his
message are for all the world. He was not granted the
power of miracles, because they had been ineffectual in
producing faith in the case of other Apostles, and the
Book is a sufficient sign. He is accused of being a
sorcerer, soothsayer, poet, madman, forger, impostor,
and of defrauding his followers. Woe to his accusers!
curses on those who affront or injure him; vengeance
will overtake his opponents; hell-fire is for those who
disobey allah Allåh and His Apostle; muhammad Muøammad
will not be ashamed at the Day.
There is a distinct development in the assertion of his
authority in the Medina surahs Sõrahs, whether towards
believers who are bidden to salute the Prophet and
beware how they enter his presence, while he is told not
to yield to them-or towards unbelievers who at length
are to be reduced to submission by warfare. But in the
quran QurŸån muhammad Muøammad remains a fallible and
sinful creature. The conception of him as the ideal man
and prototype of humanity belongs to a later
development.
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