History of Buddhism

What is Buddhism? And what is its attraction to so many who are looking for meaning? The population of Buddhist worldwide numbers about 360 million[1]. The Dali Lama[2] , the leader of Tibetan Buddhism, who won the Nobel Peace Prize in1989 often meets famous Hollywood celebrates, US Presidents and UN dignitaries. Many people in the West today are looking at Buddhism as an alternative to their traditional religious backgrounds.

The history of Buddhism in the United States can be traced back to the Chinese laborers who came to the United States to work on the railroads in the 1820’s. By 1875, there were 400 “Joss houses” [3] in California. American Poet, Henry David Thoreau, also popularized Buddhism with his translation of the Lotus Sutra, a third century Buddhist text. In the 1960 and 70’s, authors D. T. Suzuki and Alan Watts through their books on Zen Buddhism opened Buddhism as an alternative to Westerners.

As of 1993, there were over 1000 Buddhist centers including temples and monasteries in the United States, including multimillion-dollar facilities in San Francisco, Los Angeles and New York. This includes the three major forms of Buddhism, and their many subsets of Buddhism. All forms of Buddhism however can trace their origin back to an individual by the name of Siddhartha Gautama.

To understand Buddhism, we have to understand its roots, which stem from Hinduism. Siddhartha was raised a Hindu, and many of the beliefs of Buddhism are common to Hinduism. Hinduism developed from ancient indo-Europeans known as Arians who migrated into northern India about 1500 BC from present day Iran. Their religion of the Arians was Vedism; this name came from the collections of their sacred texts, the Veda.

The Veda adorned hereditary deities, who personified various natural and cosmic forces, such as fire (Agni), sun (Sūrya and Savitṛ), dawn (Uṣas), storms (the Rudras), war and rain (Indra), honour (Mitra), divine authority (Varuṇa), and creation (Indra, with some aid of Vishnu). Much like the Greek gods were assigned cosmic and natural forces.

The Arians unified the people of the Indus valley under this system, which later became known as Hinduism. They also created a caste system to keep different segments of society separate and to prevent the mingling of people, and maintaining the priestly and warrior class. These are the five main divisions of the Hindu caste system.

(3) vaishyas (the bourgeois, or middle class [businessmen/farmers], viewed as low class
by those above them);

(4) sudras (servants, not allowed to recite or listen to the Vedas [Hindu scriptures]); and

(5) outcasts (the illegitimate, criminals, and those in unclean jobs [e.g., leather workers,
barbers, etc.]).^9-11

Over time, this caste system became burdensome to the people of India. During this period, Siddhartha was born, the son of a Hindu King.

The word Buddha is Sanskrit[4] and means “Enlightened One” a name Siddhartha would become known. The boy Siddhartha Gautama was the son of King Suddhodana Gautama, the raja or chief of the Shakya clan, a family of the Kshatriya caste. He was born around 563 B.C.

After a hermit named Asita allegedly had a vision about the boy, he traveled to the Suddhodana’s court where he was shown the baby, and prophesied the following.

This Prince, if he remains in the palace, when grown up, will become a great
King and subjugate the whole world. But if he forsakes the court life to embrace
a religious life, he will become a Buddha, the Savior of the world.[5]

Siddhartha father, King Suddhodana, worked to prevent his son from seeing any misery or suffering, he ordered his servants to shield the boy from any contact with suffering. The king reportedly gave his son 3 palaces and 40,000 dancing girls.

At the age of sixteen 500 women were sent to him as prospective brides. He choose his cousin Yasodhara, he won her hand by doing 12 marvelous archery feats.

One day the prince, who was about 29, out of curiosity or boredom, fooled his father’s royal servants and was able to visit nearby Lumbini Park, where he saw a world of suffering. This caused Siddhartha to draw several conclusions.

The first day he saw a man bent over as a result of age. The next day he saw a person with disease, the next time he saw a dead person and finally he met an ascetic[6]. On his way back to his palace, he received news of his son’s birth who, he named Rāhula, meaning “Fetter” or “Bond.”

The young prince decided to make the “Great Renunciation”, to give up his royal power and became an ascetic who wanders. In the middle of the night, he went to his bedchamber to have a last look at his wife and son, and ordered his charioteer to saddle his favorite horse. He left his city, Kapilavatthu that night and by morning had crossed the Anoma River. He gave Channa his garments and assumed the clothes of a ascetic or yogi.

The searching prince went south in search of truth. For the next six years, he would search for meaning. There he met the king of Magadha, Bimbisara, who was impressed with him and offered him half his kingdom to stay with him. Siddhartha refused but promised to return with truth if he found it. He studied meditation and philosophy; his pilgrimage led him to two yogis (spiritual teachers).

The first was Āḷāra Kālāma, who trained him to reach the “Sphere No-thing”. Siddhartha mastered Alara system, and Alara declared him an equal. He then went to Uddaka Rāmaputta, another great teacher, who taught him to attain the “Sphere of neither-perception-nor-nonperception,” a higher mystical state than the sphere of no-thing. Siddhartha, however, was not satisfied with this either, and he continued his search for the truth.

He then met five yogi or ascetics who practiced different from of asceticism. Following them, he wore course clothing, he refused to sit, and only crouched on his heals. He stopped washing his body, allowing dirt to fall off from its own weight. He slept in yard where birds would eat rotting human flesh. Through self-denial he hoped to understand life, but failed. He described his physical state.,

Because of so little nourishment, all my limbs became like some withered creepers withknotted joints; my buttocks like a buffalo's hoof; my back-bone protruding like a string of balls; my ribs like rafters of a dilapidated shed; the pupils of my eyes appeared sunk deep in their sockets as water appears shining at the bottom of a deep well; my scalp became shriveled and shrunk as a bitter gourd cut unripe becomes shriveled and shrunkby sun and wind; . . . the skin of my belly came to be cleaving to my back-bone; when I wanted to obey the calls of nature, I fell down on my face then and there; when I stroked my limbs with my hand, hairs rotted at the roots fell away from my body.[7]

He realized that neither luxuries living nor asceticism would bring you truth any nearer to you. He saw Middle-Way, like a fine tuned instrument this is too tight the strings will break or too loose will not play.

He demonstrated his newfound truth to his fellow ascetics by eating a normal meal in front of his fellow monks they left him. They separated, and Gautama then left for Gaya, a major northeastern city in India.

In Gaya underneath a full moon in May, he spread a mat under a Fig or Banyan tree near the Meranja River and assumed a lotus position. He swore to remain in that position until he understood life’s mysteries. He was 35 years old that day.

After sitting under the tree he was approached by Māra, the evil one, the tempter who is the lord of the world of passion, determined to defeat him, and prevent him from attaining Enlightenment. Mara approached Siddhartha with his hideous demonic hordes. Siddhartha, however, sat in meditation unmoved. Siddhartha was sustained 10 paramitas (“great virtues”) that he had perfected during innumerable past lives as a bodhisattva (“buddha-to-be”) in order to attain Enlightenment. (In order to attain Buddhahood, all bodhisattvas [i.e., those who aspire to become buddhas] have to perfect, during innumerable lives, these 10 paramitas: charity, morality, renunciation, wisdom, effort, patience, truth, determination, universal love, and equanimity.) Māra was thus vanquished and fled headlong with his armies of evil spirits.

After stilling his mind Siddhartha began meditating. Hours later, he allegedly saw an “infinite succession of deaths and births in an ever-flowing stream of life.” His vision supported the Hindu doctrine of reincarnation, a foundational teaching of the Brahman religion in which he was raised:

Thus, with mind concentrated, purified, cleansed … I directed my mind to the
passing away and rebirth of beings. With divine, purified, superhuman vision I
saw beings passing away and being reborn, low and high, of good and bad color,
in happy or miserable existences, according to their karma (in other words,
according to that universal law by which every act of good or evil will be
rewarded or punished either in this life or in some later incarnation).[8]

“I realized that rebirth has been destroyed, the holy life has been lived, the job has been done, there is nothing
after this. [9]

Along with his vision came an internal perception of how to obtain liberation
from samsara, or the cycle of rebirths. The young prince had lost his ignorance about the
nature of this world. He understood everything. He had become the “awakened one,” the
“enlightened one”—the Buddha.

The Buddhist scriptures tell us that Siddhartha was under the tree for seven weeks, facing his first dilemma: should he keep his knowledge to himself or share it with others? It was common for monks in Gautama’s day to keep information to themselves. He choose to spread the information he learned.

One hundred miles from where he was “Enlightened” and two months later, Gautama gave his first sermon, Isipatana in the Deer Park. He presented the “Wheel of the Doctrine”, which contained the Four Noble Truths and would serve as foundational Buddhist teachings.

After this Gautama founded the Sangha (Community or order) composed of monks, nuns and disciples. Several months after his Enlightenment he addressed 60 of his followers In a sermon, the Buddha said,

Bhikkhus, I am freed from all fetters, both divine and human. You, too, are freed from all fetters, both divine and human. Wander forth, bhikkhus, for the good of the many, for the happiness of the many, out of compassion for the world. . . . Let not two of you go by one road [i.e., go in different directions]. Teach the Dhamma which is good at the beginning, good in the middle, and good at the end. . . . There are people who will understand the Dhamma. I, too, will go to Uruvelā to teach the Dhamma.[10]

For more than forty years the Buddha continued instructing all who would listen. Then,
tragedy struck at Kusinara in the district of Gorakhpur. Chunda the blacksmith fed the Buddha
either spoiled pig’s flesh or poisoned mushrooms (truffles). The Buddha quickly fell ill with
dysentery and died at the age of eighty.

The collection of Buddha’s beliefs is known as dhama, and they deal with one objective, how to escape samsara. Samsara is the rebirth cycle, or the concept of reincarnation. Once you escape samsara, you achieve nirvana, which represents heaven to the Buddhist, but means escape, deliverance from pain and sorrow a state of bliss.

The dharma instructs the Buddhist how to progress to nirvana. The journey is achieved by following the Buddha’s Four Nobel Truths, called Pativedhanana, which means “The wisdom of realization” These four “truths” center around:

Buddha proclaimed life is full of pain and sorrow. For anyone to believe otherwise is to believe an illusion. This is the First Noble Truth or dukkha (meaning a bone twisted out of joint).

People, according to Buddha, fool themselves to think life is also filled with happiness, because happiness can never compensate for all the suffering we experience.

Tanha, (Attachment) the Second Noble Truth, teaches suffering is due to “false desires of our senses that deceive us into clinging to a temporary world. This is at the heart of the Buddha’s revelation.

Tanha is related to the Buddha’s claim that “All things in life” are insignificant and have no meaning. Ignorance (avidya) of this reality is a hurdle that must be overcome to gain freedom from Samsara (reincarnation). The dynamic pull between tanha (attachment to temporary things) and avidya (ignorance of life’s temporary state) is a complex concept. Broken down they fall into the following steps:[11]

The dynamic has been compared to watching a movie, where someone interacts with their emotions about an event happening on the screen, that in reality is not happening.

The Third Noble Truth is Nirodha (cessation), teaches the way out of suffering is separate yourself from false desires of the temporary self, to give up physical, emotional, and mental cravings because these are all delusions of permanence. All desire is the cause of suffering.

By this abandonment of “Temporary” helps the “Self” come to the realization of the temporary state of all things. When this is done in addition to living a “Righteous” life this one is on the can attain nirvana.

The Buddha’s teachings on rejection of desire and suppression of emotional attachment is
seen perhaps best in the story of a monk named Sangamaji. Like Siddhartha, Sangamaji had left
his wife and family to search for truth as a homeless wanderer. While sitting in meditation
beneath a tree, his wife approached him and lay their child before him. She asked her husband to
nourish her and their child. Sangamaji remained silent until finally the woman took the child and
left.

Siddhartha, after observing the incident, reportedly commented, “He [Sangamaji] feels no
pleasure when she comes, no sorrow when she goes: a true Brahman released from passion.”[12]

The Fourth Noble Truth is the Buddhist way of life, the practical steps to attain nirvana. These eight branches, the Buddha taught must be adopted by someone who desires to be delivered from suffering. They are known as the Noble Eightfold Path (Marga)

(1) Right Views (understanding): Belief that the Four Noble Truths are true, accurate, and
reliable.

(2) Right Aspirations (ambition): A “total commitment of body, mind, and will to the
training and discipline required to extricate oneself from the human predicament.”^9-39 One must
resolve to maintain thoughts “free from lust, ill will, cruelty, or untruthfulness”^9-40 and
“renounce the selfish self and sensual pleasures.”^9-41

(3) Right Speech (communication): One’s words “must be not only charitable but also free
from egocentricity.”^9-42 One must abstain from “gossiping, lying, tattling … harsh language,
vain talk, or reveling” and speak “kindly, open, and truthful.”^9-43

(4) Right Conduct (action): A “beneficent behavior extended universally to all living things
coupled with an abstinence from alcohol and drugs, for a person must have complete control
over his mind to accomplish the difficult task of redemption.”^9-44 One should abstain “from
killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct” and practice actions that are “peaceful, honest, and
pure.”^9-45

(5) Right Livelihood (vocation): A “proper means of support … in which a person does not
inflict pain on other people or creatures.”^9-46 A butcher, soldier, fisherman, or exterminator
would not fit this path.

(6) Right Effort (endeavor): A willingness to reach “deep inside oneself to draw upon all the
energy a person possesses.”^9-47 Showing such effort involves “self-training and self-control, self-
discipline.”^9-48 The disciple “puts forth will, he makes effort, he stirs up energy, he grips and
forces his mind.”^9-49

(7) Right Mindfulness (mind control): Involves paying “close attention to one’s mood,
emotions, and feelings,” because “all we are is the result of what we have thought.”^9-50 Right
mindfulness also means examining “every state of feeling in body or mind.”^9-51

(8) Right Concentration (deep meditation): A special practice of meditation in which
“thought itself … [is] annihilated and the mind rests.”^9-52 This trance-like state of consciousness
is induced through practicing intense concentration on one single object. It progresses through
four stages, the end result being “rapture of utter purity of mindfulness … wherein neither ease
is felt or any ill.”^9-53

Following this Noble Eightfold Path allows someone to eliminate desires the keep a person from reaching nirvana. Once a person reaches “Purity of thought and life” they become an arahat (someone who is freed from the need of Samsara (rebirth) and is ready for nirvana). Nirvan comes from Sanskrit, and means “Blowing Out”.

The concept of Nirvana originated in Hinduism and is similar to the Buddhist concept, meaning to Blow Out, extinguishing the flame. Conflict in understanding this term has led to divergent views of Buddha and Buddhism. Some Buddhist worship Buddha as a divine being other Buddhist view him as an ordinary man. Tibetan Buddhist, see the Dali Lama as the reincarnated Buddha, who was not extinguished into Nirvana but choose to come back and help those still here.

The living process is likened to a fire burning. Its remedy is the extinction of the fire of illusion, passions, and cravings. The Buddha, the Enlightened One, is one who is no longer kindled or enflamed. Many poetic terms are used to describe the state of the enlightened human being—the harbour of refuge, the cool cave, the place of bliss, the farther shore. The term that has become famous in the West is nirvana, translated as dying out—that is, the dying out in the heart of the fierce fires of lust, anger, and delusion. But nirvana is not extinction, and indeed the craving for annihilation or nonexistence was expressly repudiated by the Buddha. Buddhists search not for mere cessation but for salvation. Though nirvana is often presented negatively as “release from suffering,” it is more accurate to describe it in a more positive fashion: as an ultimate goal to be sought and cherished.[14]

This view of Nirvana contrasts with the Brahman Hindu view that teaches that Nirvana means to be united with the Universal Soul. The Buddha believed according to some Buddhist taught that the souls elements along with individual identity are extinguished at Nirvana.

Karma is directly related to Samsara or (rebirth), Karma determines the circumstances into which someone will be reborn. Buddha’s teaching differed from the Hindu concept in that he taught rather then the soul being reborn, only “Karmic matter” was reborn. Thus at rebirth these elements are rearranged rather then the whole soul being reborn as an identity into a new body.

Buddha that there is no personal “Soul” that continues to exist after someone dies. What is reborn is just karmic matter that was once a distinct individual. Finally, as a result of endless combinations of karma, these elements will be extinguished forever. This is nirvana to the Buddhist.

The only way of reaching nirvana in this present life is by becoming a Buddhist monk. This means leaving family, friends and joining a Buddhist monastery (sangha)[15], which Buddha started for those seeking nirvana. Therefore a person who is not a monk must be reincarnated till they become a monk. The oldest Buddhist tradition, excludes women from reaching nirvana from this life, she must be reborn a male, who then becomes a monk. This includes Buddhist nuns also who must die and be reborn as male monks.

There are many varieties of Buddhism with their distinct teachings, traditions and scriptures.. There are three main Buddhist Schools. The Thervada (monastic and conservative), Mahayana (liberal and lay-oriented) and the Vajrayana or Tibetan (the most esoteric).

Immediately after the Buddha’s death, members of his original sangha sought to organize
their master’s teachings into a system of doctrines on which they could agree. They successfully
did this and began sharing their beliefs with others. But disagreements soon arose regarding the
Buddha’s exact words and what he meant by those words. This occurred because his disciples,
in accordance with the Indian tradition of oral preservation of spiritual teachings, had not
written down any of the Buddha’s discourses during his lifetime. Such writings were not
compiled until four hundred years after the Buddha’s lifetime.

The Buddha’s sangha eventually split into a number of small groups holding to different
interpretations of the dharma. Conflict over the meaning of the dharma arose not only
between individual monks, but also between various monasteries. A severe fragmentation of
Buddhism ensued, which by the third century B.C. had produced approximately eighteen
different sects. The first major rift between schools occurred from about 200 B.C. to A.D. 200
and led to the formation of two traditions still in existence today—Theravada and Mahayana.

Within the Theravada tradition are Buddhist schools holding to a strict interpretation of the
Buddha’s teachings. This tradition is often termed the “fundamentalist branch” of Buddhism
because it has preserved what is probably the original form of Buddhism.^9-62

Mahayana Buddhism includes individuals and schools who subscribe to teachings that are
“modifications and amplifications of themes already present in the Theravadin heritage.”^9-63

When this division took place, followers of the newer way called their belief system
Mahayana, which means the “greater vehicle” of salvation, or the “expansive way.” They
disdainfully labeled the older schools Hinayana, which means the “lesser vehicle” of salvation,
or the “exclusive way.”^9-64

Buddhists of both traditions look to the Buddha as their primary source of truth. But
Mahayanists, unlike Theravadins, recognize numerous other Buddhas and bodhisattvas
(those who help others toward enlightenment and nirvana). These personalities are said to be
manifestations of the Absolute and, along with the Buddha, are regularly prayed to for
assistance. Some are worshiped as gods.

The Theravada and Mahayana scriptures are different as well. The former tradition looks to
the Pali Canon (written about 80 B.C.). This text—written in the Pali language and divided into a
number of suttas—is called the Tripitaka, which means literally “three baskets.” It is about
eleven times as large as the Bible and is arranged in three main divisions: (1) the Sutta Pitaka
(discourses of Siddhartha); (2) the Vinaya Pitaka (precepts and rules for the Sangha); and (3)
the Abidhamma Pitaka (esoteric and philosophical interpretations of the dharma.

The Mahayana tradition accepts as authoritative an extensive list of texts called sutras
(composed primarily between the sixth and first centuries B.C.). The Chinese canon alone
encompasses more than 5,000 volumes.^9-65 Unlike the Theravadin suttas, which average only
about twenty pages each, the Mahayana sutras are very long. They cannot be found in
original form in only one language, but instead are written in Chinese, Tibetan, and Sanskrit.
Furthermore, since there is no clear limit to the Mahayana canon, recent writings are constantly
being added to Mahayana scriptures. This has forced most Mahayana sects to choose favorite
texts for common use:

The fact is that some such selection is necessary, for this extreme bulk of and breadth of the scriptures make it impossible for believers to be acquainted with, let alone understand and practice, the often contradictory teachings found in
them.^9-66

Followers of Mahayana also take a different view of their scriptures than do followers of
Theravada. The latter ascribe value to the Pali Canon because of its literal message. Mahayana
Buddhists, however, attribute value to their holy writings not only because of the message
contained therein, but also because they believe that the texts themselves possess magical
powers which may be drawn upon for protection and material success.

Another difference exists between the Mahayana and Theravada traditions when it comes to
nirvana. To Theravadins, escape from samsara—or the cycle of rebirth—is nirvana. It is
a state marked by complete deliverance from all pain and sorrow. But in the Mahayana tradition,
the whole purpose of becoming a bodhisattva is not to escape life, but to remain in life in
order to help others reach enlightenment.

If the Theravada explanation of nirvana is coupled with the Mahayana concept of what it
means to reach enlightenment, then hypothetically the most spiritually advanced persons would
never reach nirvana because they always forsake escape from samsara in order to help
others. Consequently, those in the Mahayana tradition have had to change the definition of
nirvana to “the true state of spiritual perfection” rather than escape from rebirth:

Thus the perfected Bodhisattva becomes aware that just by being a
Bodhisattva he is already in nirvana. … For him nirvana and Samsara are
not two different realms. … Paradoxically put … to renounce nirvana for
oneself, in love for others, is to find oneself in nirvana, in its real meaning.^9-67

Despite their many differences, Theravada and Mahayana Buddhists share
many beliefs in common:

(6) deliverance from rebirth and
suffering takes place through a change in consciousness;

(7) a liberating change in consciousness can be obtained only through following the teachings of the Buddha and/or reliance upon the Buddha’s love and mercy.^9-68

Vajrayana Buddhism—also known as Tibetan Buddhism, Tantric Buddhism, and Lamaism—
is called the “diamond way,” which by implication means it is the precious, changeless, pure,
and clear way. It developed during the fifth to sixth centuries A.D. as Buddhism spread through
northern India, Nepal, and finally Tibet.

At that time, the prevailing belief of Tibet was the Bon religion, “a mixture of shamanism [a
form of witchcraft], magic, and primitive nature worship.”^9-69 Vajrayana was born when these
practices, along with magical formulae designed to obtain magical powers, were incorporated
into Buddhism (A.D. 600–1200).^9-70 Included in the Vajrayana tradition are a number of
advanced meditative techniques: yoga, special hand gestures (mudras), spells, and chants. It
also derives many of its doctrines from Vedantic and Tantric influences.^9-71

Vedanta is an Indian school of philosophy, which teaches that god (Brahman) and the soul
(Atman) are one. In other words, there is only one ultimate reality—Brahman—and the
individuality we see is nothing but an illusion. The maker (maya) of illusion is ignorance
(avidya). Enlightenment occurs when one realizes that “the world is not real: only the
Absolute, Brahman, is real.”^9-72

The Tantras are a series of A.D. sixth century scriptures associated with the worship of
Shakti, Mother of the Universe. They are made available only to initiates of various Tantric
religions (Tibetan Buddhism is only one of many Tantric belief systems). Study of these texts
“is said to reveal clairvoyance, clairaudience, telepathy, psychometry, the power of sound, vocal
expression, and the composition of music.”^9-73

The word tantra basically means “loom” and refers more specifically to the threads of a
loom. This expresses the foundational teaching of Tantraism—all things are interwoven into one
ultimate reality. Tantraism is also based on a variety of sex rituals that involve “breathing
exercises, meditation, and the prolonged sexual contact known as maithuna.”^9-74

The sexual philosophy within Tantric Buddhism is linked to a number of ideas. There is the
belief that erotic love is a profound experience that “opens the mind to a sense of awe and
wonder akin to religious experience.”^9-75 Also present is the idea that during the act of sexual
intercourse, a transcending of boundaries between participants occurs, leading to an experience
of oneness with each other. There exists the additional notion that the best way to escape
blinding passion—in this case sexual lust—is to “go into the act that is desired rather than to
retreat from it.”^9-76

Perhaps the most important part of Tantric religions, including Tibetan Buddhism, is the
belief that male and female energies reside in everyone. The male energy is said to be the
dynamic, powerful, and moving force. The female energy is thought of as static and docile.

These two energies correspond to aspects of one’s spirituality. The female side is connected
to inward properties such as “wisdom and realization” and is linked to “the more symbolic or
intuitive aspects of understanding.”^9-77 The dynamic (male) side “relates to outgoing aspects
such as compassion and strength,” as well as to cognitive knowledge.^9-78 The goal of Tantric sex
practices is to unite the two spiritual forces through physical union.

Some followers of Tantric religions, however, believe that sexual intercourse is not
necessary. They maintain that the sex acts depicted in Tantric art and literature are only
symbolic representations of a spiritual unification of both energies that can, through meditation
and other practices, lead to a uniting of the male and female energies.

Many of the occult aspects of Tibetan Buddhism also come from Tantraism. The Tantric
tradition maintains a close relationship to magic and includes “secret teachings, scriptures in
code, the practice of drawing symbols on the ground, and uttering spells to call up deities,
supernatural powers that can be used for good or evil.”^9-79

According to Walt Anderson, author of Open Secrets: A Western Guide to Tibetan
Buddhism, the Tantric Buddhist ideal is to yield: “Go ahead and do it, whatever it is, if you think
you must and it doesn’t harm somebody else. But pay attention; be fully aware of what goes on
in your mind and body, of how it really feels.”^9-80

[1] http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html, September 2002

[2] The Dali Lama represents the third major branch of Buddhism, Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhist which account for 6% of the total Buddhist Population. Six million Tibetans believe He is the 14th earthly incarnation of the heavenly deity of compassion and mercy.

[3] Joss houses The joss house would be the first community building constructed in the Chinese settlements, and it served as a center for worship, education, community fellowship,

[4] Old Indo-Aryan language, the classical literary language of the Hindus of India. Vedic Sanskrit, based on a dialect of northwestern India, dates from as early as 1800 BC

[5] Buddhist Promoting Foundation (Bukkyo Denod Kyokai)

[6] Ascetics were Hindi yogis who practiced self denials

[7] Encylopedia Britanica, 2004 edition, Buddha

[8] Kingdom of the Cults, Walter Martin, October 1997

[9] Henry Warren, Buddhism in Translations, 380-381, as quoted in Fry, et al., Great Asian Religions, 67-68

[10] Encylcopedia Britanica 2004 Edition, Buddha

[11] Kingdom of the Cults, Walter Martin, 1997 pg. 307

[12] ibid, pg. 308

[13] ibid pg. 308-309

[14] Encyclopedia Britanica 2004, Nirvana

[15] An alms dependent order of Buddhist monks.

[16] Kingdom of the Cults, Walter Martin Pgs. 310-315